MODERN LAND DRAINAGE. Planning, Design and Management of Agricultural Drainage Systems

Willem F. Vlotman, Lambert K. Smedema, David W. Rycroft

Mayo de 2020      Páginas: 472

Código 8677     ISBN/EAN: 9780367458775

Table of Contents

PART I INTRODUCTION 
1 LAND DRAINAGE FOR AGRICULTURE 
1.1 Drainage Objectives; Scope of the Book 
1.2 Global Drainage Zones
1.2.1 Temperate zone 
1.2.2 Arid and semiarid zone 
1.2.3 Humid and semi-humid zone 
1.3 Agro-Hydrological Regimes
1.4 Waterlogging Control 
1.4.1 Positive and adverse impacts 
1.4.2 Responses to improved drainage 
1.5 Salinity Control 
1.6 Drainage Systems 
1.7 Bio-Drainage 
1.8 Environmental Impacts 
1.8.1 Stream flow regimes
1.8.2 Water quality
1.8.3 Wetlands and conservation drainage
1.8.4 Public health 
1.9 Drainage Development Considerations 

2 PLANNING AND DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 
2.1 Design rainfall 
2.2 Percolation of excess irrigation water 
2.3 Design of field drainage systems 
2.4 Determination of design criteria 

3 REMOTE SENSING AND FIELD RECONNAISSANCE 
3.1 Need for drainage and problem diagnosis 
3.2 Remote sensing and aerial survey 
3.3 Field investigations 
3.4 Planning stakeholder engagement 
3.5 Stages of project preparation 
3.6 Operation, management and maintenance 

4 ASSESSMENT OF COSTS 
4.1 Required Information 
4.2 Discounting 
4.3 Evaluation Indices 
4.4 Cost Evaluation of Open and Pipe Drainage Systems incl. O&M 
4.5 Cost Calculations for Pipe Drainage Systems 
4.5.1 Cost structure for pipe drainage construction 
4.5.2 Guidelines for cost calculations 
4.5.3 Example cost calculation 

PART II INVESTIGATIONS 
5 CLIMATE, LAND, SOIL AND ENVIRONMENT 
5.1 Climate 
5.1.1 Climate; soil moisture balance calculations 
5.1.2 Climate: rainfall depth-duration-frequency studies 
5.2 Topography 
5.3 Soil and Land Conditions 
5.4 Soil Parameters and Properties 
5.4.1 Texture 
5.4.2 Plasticity index 
5.4.3 Bulk density and soil moisture content 
5.4.4 Sample quantity and density 
5.4.5 Data requirement for drain envelope design 
5.5 Watertable and Groundwater 
5.5.1 Watertable observation wells 
5.5.2 Piezometric studies 
5.5.3 Groundwater sampling 
5.6 Hydrology and Geohydrology 
5.6.1 Runoff and flooding 
5.6.2 Outlet conditions 
5.6.3 Geohydrological conditions 
5.7 Agriculture and Irrigation 
5.8 Pilot Areas and Field Testing 
5.8.1 Types of pilot areas 
5.8.2 Analysis of results of pilot areas 
5.8.3 Visual drainage need assessment 
5.8.4 Statistical analysis 
5.9 Environmental Impact 
5.9.1 Environmental impact assessment 
5.9.2 Miscellaneous investigations 

6 WATER IN THE SOIL 
6.1 Forms and Nature of Occurrence of Water in the Soil 
6.2 Pressures in the Soil Water 
6.3 Soil Moisture Characteristics 
6.4 Soil Water Potential and Soil Water Movement 
6.5 Unsaturated Zone; Soil Moisture Constants 
6.6 Infiltration and Percolation 
6.7 Groundwater Flow; Laplace Equation 

7 HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY 
7.1 Laboratory Measurement 
7.2 Field Measurements below the Watertable 
7.2.1 Augerhole method 
7.2.2 Piezometer method 
7.2.3 Drain outflow method 
7.3 Field Measurements above the Watertable 
7.3.1 Infiltrometer-method 
7.3.2 Inverted augerhole method (Porchet method) 
7.4 Composed K-Values 
7.5 Surveys and Data Processing 

PART III SYSTEMS AND TECHNOLOGY 
8 SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE SYSTEMS 
8.1 Pipe Drain Systems 
8.2 Deep Ditch Systems 
8.3 Drainpipes 
8.4 Envelopes 
8.4.1 Envelope need 
8.4.2 Material selection 
8.4.3 Envelope thickness 
8.5 Envelope Design Guidelines and Criteria 
8.5.1 Granular envelopes 
8.5.2 Organic envelopes 
8.5.3 Synthetic envelopes 
8.6 Structures in Pipe Drain Systems 
8.6.1 Surface water inlets 
8.6.2 Inspection, junctions and control 
8.6.3 Crossings 
8.6.4 Outlet of a pipe drain into a ditch or canal 
8.6.5 Sump outlet 
8.7 Construction of Pipe Drain Systems 
8.7.1 Setting out, depth and grade control 
8.7.2 Installation methods and machinery 
8.7.3 Construction and quality control 
8.7.4 Timing of installation 
8.7.5 Installation below the watertable 
8.7.6 Backfill 

9 SURFACE/SHALLOW DRAINAGE SYSTEMS 
9.1 Bedding Systems 
9.2 Shallow Ditch Systems 
9.2.1 Types of shallow ditch systems 
9.2.2 Some technical aspects of shallow ditch systems 
9.3 Mole Drainage Systems 
9.4 Pipe Drainage Systems 
9.5 Complementary Measures 
9.5.1 Sub-soiling 
9.5.2 Deep ploughing 
9.5.3 Chemical amendments and organic matter 
9.5.4 Land levelling 

10 MAIN DRAINAGE SYSTEMS 
10.1 Main Features 
10.1.1 Drainage basin (watershed, catchment) 
10.1.2 Types and alignment of drainage canals 
10.1.3 Outlet and water levels 
10.1.4 Outlet Structures 
10.2 Lowland and Upland Drainage 
10.2.1 Lowland polder 
10.2.2 River polders 
10.2.3 Upland discharges 
10.2.4 Drainage of urban areas 

PART IV DESIGN 
11 DESIGN OF PIPE DRAINAGE SYSTEMS 
11.1 Flow Patterns 
11.2 Drain Spacing Formulae 
11.3 Hooghoudt Formula 
11.3.1 Use of the Hooghoudt formula 
11.3.2 Notes on the Hooghoudt formula 
11.3.3 Drain spacing determination in anisotropic soils 
11.4 Non-Steady State Drainage Formulae 
11.4.1 Falling watertable (Glover-Dumm formula) 
11.4.2 Fluctuating watertable (de Zeeuw and Hellinga formula) 
11.5 Basic Design Criteria 
11.5.1 Criteria for off-season drainage 
11.5.2 Criteria for crop-season drainage 
11.5.3 The impact of drain depth and drainable pore space 
11.5.4 Drainage criteria determined by simulation 
11.6 Drain Depth 
11.7 Pipe Diameter 

12 DESIGN DISCHARGES 
12.1 Discharge Transformation 
12.2 Design Considerations 
12.3 Statistical Analysis of Observed Discharges 
12.4 Flat basins 
12.4.1 Subsurface drainage 
12.4.2 Shallow drainage 
12.4.3 Further guidance for flat basins 
12.5 Sloping Basins 
12.5.1 Rational formula 
12.5.2 Curve Number method 
12.5.3 Synthetic hydrographs 
12.6 Area Reduction Formulae 
12.7 Discharge Reduction through Storage 
12.7.1 Retention reservoirs 
12.7.2 Canal storage 

13 DESIGN OF DRAINAGE CANALS, PUMPS AND STRUCTURES 
13.1 Drainage Canals 
13.1.1 Discharge rate 
13.1.2 Hydraulic gradient and water levels 
13.1.3 Permissible flow velocities 
13.1.4 Cross-section 
13.1.5 Roughness coefficient 
13.1.6 Freeboard 
13.2 Structures in Drainage Canals 
13.2.1 Culverts and bridges 
13.2.2 Weirs 
13.2.3 Backwater curves 
13.2.4 Example Canal Design 
13.3 Tidal Outlets 
13.3.1 Local variations in tide 
13.3.2 Discharge through a sluice 
13.3.3 Example of calculations 
13.4 Pumps 
13.4.1 Types of pumps 
13.4.2 Pumping head and characteristics 
13.4.3 Pump selection 
13.4.4 Sump and intake design 
13.4.5 Power and cost calculations 
13.4.6 Example cost calculations of an electrically driven pump 

PART V SALINITY CONTROL 
14 SOIL SALINITY 
14.1 Forms of Occurrence and Distribution of Salts in the Soil 
14.1.1 The soil solution 
14.1.2 Adsorbed cations 
14.1.3 Equilibrium relationships 
14.1.4 Distribution of salts in the soil 
14.2 Agricultural Impacts; Diagnosis and Assessment 
14.2.1 Osmotic problems 
14.2.2 Toxicity problems 
14.2.3 Dispersion problems 
14.2.4 Corrosion problems 
14.3 Classification 
14.3.1 Classification systems 
14.3.2 Field appearance 
14.4 Conventional Mapping and Sampling 
14.4.1 Sampling 
14.4.2 Laboratory analysis 
14.5 New Salinity Measurement and Mapping Techniques 
14.5.1 The EM38 
14.5.2 Time Domain Reflectometry 
14.5.3 Remote sensing methods 

15 IRRIGATION INDUCED SALINISATION 
15.1 Salinisation by the Applied Irrigation Water 
15.2 Salinisation from the Groundwater (Capillary Salinisation) 
15.2.1 Critical watertable depth 
15.2.2 Factors influencing capillary salinisation 
15.3 Sodification 
15.4 Salt Balance of Irrigated Land 
15.4.1 Leaching requirement calculations 
15.4.2 Regional salt balances 
15.5 Irrigation Water Quality 
15.5.1 Salinity hazard 
15.5.2 Sodicity hazard 
15.5.3 Toxicity hazards 
15.5.4 Examples of irrigation water quality appraisal 

16 DRAINAGE OF IRRIGATED LAND 
16.1 Waterlogging and Salinity 
16.2 Surface Drainage 
16.3 Pipe Drainage Systems 
16.3.1 Drain depth 
16.3.2 Design criteria 
16.3.3 Layout patterns 
16.3.4 Pipe diameter 
16.4 Well or Vertical Drainage 
16.4.1 Types of aquifers 
16.4.2 Design of well (vertical) drainage 
16.5 Main Drainage 
16.5.1 Design discharge 
16.5.2 Disposal of saline drainage water 

PART VI SPECIAL TOPICS 
17 SEEPAGE AND INTERCEPTION 
17.1 Drainage Systems for Sloping Land 
17.1.1 Longitudinal drainage 
17.1.2 Transverse drainage 
17.2 Interception 
17.2.1 Interception of seepage down the slope 
17.2.2 Interception of Canal Seepage 
17.3 Natural Drainage of River Valleys 
17.4 Seepage into a Polder 
17.4.1 Semi-confined flow 
17.4.2 Phreatic flow 
17.5 Seep Zones and Springs 

18 RECLAMATION AND DRAINAGE OF UNRIPENED SOILS 
18.1 The Soil Ripening Processes 
18.1.1 Physical ripening 
18.1.2 Other ripening processes 
18.2 Reclamation and Drainage Methods 
18.2.1 Early reclamation stage 
18.2.2 Development of the hydraulic conductivity (K-value) 
18.2.3 Advanced reclamation stage 
18.2.4 Drainage, evaporation and ripening 
18.3 Acid Sulphate Soils 
18.3.1 Acidification processes 
18.3.2 Neutralisation and reclamation 
18.3.3 Diagnosis 
18.4 Subsidence Prediction 
18.4.1 Ripening subsidence 
18.4.2 Settlement subsidence due to lowering of the watertable 
18.4.3 Oxidation of peat soils 
18.4.4 Experiences in the Netherlands 

19 DRAINAGE OF RICE LANDS 
19.1 Surface Drainage 
19.2 Subsurface Drainage 
19.3 Crop Diversification 
19.4 Flood Control 

20 CONTROLLED DRAINAGE 
20.1 Issues and Developments 
20.2 Design Considerations 
20.2.1 Layout and technical provisions 
20.2.2 Drain depth 
20.2.3 Reuse arrangements 
20.2.4 Discharge control and watertable management 
20.3 Operation and Maintenance by Farmers 
20.4 Controlled Drainage at the Regional Level 

21 COMPUTER APPLICATIONS 
21.1 Drainage Design Applications 
21.1.1 Field systems 
21.1.2 Canal systems 
21.1.3 Preparation of drawings and documents 
21.2 Rainfall Discharge Models 
21.2.1 TR-20 model 
21.2.2 HEC-HMS 
21.3 Ground Water Flow Models 
21.3.1 Spreadsheet models 
21.3.2 MODFLOW and integrated programs 
21.3.3 SGMP and SOURCE 
21.4 Agrohydrological Models 
21.4.1 DRAINMOD version 6 
21.4.2 SWAP 
21.5 Salinity Prediction Models 
21.5.1 SALTMOD 
21.5.2 WATSUIT 

PART VII MANAGEMENT AND NEW DEVELOPMENTS 
22 RESEARCH AND INNOVATION 
22.1 Hydroluis Pipe-Envelope Drainage 
22.2 Capiphone Drain 
22.3 Precision Agriculture for Water Quality Control 
22.4 Bi-level Subsurface Drainage 

23 INSTITUTIONAL, ORGANISATIONAL AND FINANCIAL ARRANGEMENTS 
23.1 Drainage Laws 
23.2 Development and Management Models 
23.2.1 Public/private good model 
23.2.2 Participatory Development 
23.2.3 Management Transfer 
23.3 Public Drainage Organisation 
23.4 Financing 
23.4.1 Investments 
23.4.2 Operation and Maintenance Costs 
23.4.3 Fee Systems 

24 MAINTENANCE 
24.1 Classification 
24.2 Organisation, Planning and Execution 
24.3 Maintenance of Open Drainage Canals 
24.3.1 Problems 
24.3.2 Requirements 
24.3.3 Methods and Equipment 
24.3.4 Environmental considerations 
24.4 Maintenance of Pipe Drains 
24.4.1 Pipe Cleaning 
24.4.2 Entry of roots 
24.4.3 Chemical clogging (iron ochre, gypsum) 
24.4.4 Access facilities 
24.4.5 Costs 
24.5 Developing Countries 

25 PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT AND BENCHMARKING 
25.1 Drainage Design and Performance 
25.2 Indicators 
25.3 Performance Assessment Procedure 
25.3.1 Preliminary Investigations (first step) 
25.3.2 Primary Investigation (second step) 
25.3.3 Cause Analysis (third step) 
25.4 Performance Checking of Pipe Systems 
25.5 Causes of Under-Performance of Drainage Systems 

REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING 
INDEX  
ABOUT THE AUTHORS